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By Dr. Paul Williams, PT, DPT It’s a double-edged sword to talk about internal training. Many martial artists find themselves at two ends of a spectrum. At one end, keyboard warriors accuse this practice as classic “bullshido” and dismissively point to videos of supposed martial art masters getting trounced by street fighters when their ki projection fails to thwart their attacker. At the other end, are those who see internal training as a mystical phenomenon that should be spoken of in metaphysical terms like Chi, Ki, or Prana. Some even claim to be the only progenitors of a secret internal training. According to them, no one should teach or talk about it other than those that have either used it in the streets or dedicated decades of their lives to its practice, perhaps in a remote cave somewhere. My personal journey in internal training began with two decades of back pain and a lot of failure with every somatic practice and therapy one could imagine. At the end of a long journey, I found no better modality in reconnecting my mind back to my body than internal training. Practices like Nei Gong in Tai Chi, Nairiki in Shindo Yoshin Ryu, and Hoa Newens Sensei’s Kihon Kunren for Aikido have given my life back to me. As a physical therapist, this has been a shocking and revealing discovery. One that I am still processing to this day. I had many questions as to why these practices worked and continue to do so where other methods like physical therapy and Yoga failed me. Why did they work for some people but not me? The answer likely lies in the way I practiced them rather than the modality itself. After researching fascia for this series, I found that internal training is any exercise or a series of exercises that will facilitate and develop improvements in fascia’s sensitivity and acuity for interoception, proprioception, and exteroception. If we have a practice that works on all three of these facets of the somatosensory system and its largest sensory organ, then I believe any somatic modality can have equal effects in healing and improved mobility. What is Interoception? “Interoception is an umbrella term for the phenomenological experience of what is going on in the body. This experience is constructed by the central nervous system, based on all available information and influenced by past experiences, as well as predictive guesses about possible future scenarios. [1]” –Robert Schleip As mentioned before in this series, there are more sensory nerve receptors in our fascia than in our muscle tissues or skin making it our richest sensory organ [2]. It also covers more real estate than our skin since it is found just under the skin and dives deep into our body’s connective tissues, viscera, and bone. Interoception is an umbrella term for experiencing and understanding what is going on inside the body which is brought to our awareness through unmyelinated free nerve endings sent from the viscera and intramuscular connective tissues to the insular cortex of the brain.  The anterior insular cortex (the emotional processing center of our brain) intimately connects sensations to our emotional state of mind and past experiences. It also greatly affects our autonomic system by triggering our amygdala. This system determines either our flight or fight reaction (sympathetic system) or our rest and digest response (parasympathetic system) [1]. The mid and posterior insular cortex is involved in bodily awareness and has a shared role in somatosensory processing [3].  Interoceptive signals from the body are linked with sensations like warmth, nausea, hunger, heartbeat, taste, pain, soreness, effort, sexual arousal, heaviness, and lightness. Internal training can increase our awareness of these sensations along with emotions like sadness, depression, anxiety, well-being, joy, and ease [1]. Unfortunately, past traumas that can cause stress, pain, and self-numbing behavior can bring about disruption or pathology of our interoception which can result in psychosomatic and somato-emotional disorders such as depression, anxiety, PTSD, chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, alexithymia, and anorexia to name a few. Therefore, now that we know the interoceptive pathways it stands to reason and confirmed in recent research that internal training can have a positive impact on our psychophysiological health [4]. We just need to know how to access them which will be covered later. What is proprioception? Our experience of proprioception starts from nerve endings called mechanoreceptors found in our fascia, connective tissue, muscles, joints, bones, and skin. These receptors send signals to the primary somatosensory cortex of the brain after being stimulated by pressure from squeezing, stretching, or compressing [5]. These aspects of the brain regulate muscle tone, posture, and locomotion. Dysfunctions of proprioception can lead to chronic low back pain, ataxia, complex regional pain disorder, and attention deficit hyperactive disorder [4]. One of my favorite things to do when trying to understand how our neurophysiology works is to look at pathologies. The more extreme the better! In my research, there was none more severe and interesting than the case study of Ian Waterman. [6] At 19 years old, Ian worked as a butcher in England and sustained an infection from a laceration. After suffering from a fever, he began to lose all sensation in his body. In the hospital he couldn’t even feel the bed beneath him as if floating on a cloud. It is believed that he suffered an autoimmune response which destroyed all sensory nerves below his neck. He did not know where his body was in space consciously or unconsciously. Therefore, his proprioception ceased to exist. Of course, doctors believed he would spend the rest of his life in a wheelchair. But to their amazement, Ian was able to recover the functional use of his body through determination and mental imagery. It started with him imagining bringing himself upright in bed, and then moved on to planning each and every step with his gait. Depending heavily on his vision both inner and outer, Ian was able to regain a somewhat normal life. This case study highlights two important things: the essential nature of proprioception to everyday life (understanding where our body is in space), and the other is the significance of using mental imagery for internal training. The later I will go into greater detail when discussing internal training practices. What is Exteroception? Exteroception is described as the five senses of your somatosensory system such as seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching in relation to outside stimulus. This concept is not written much about in recent scientific literature related to fascia, but it is studied in older perception and psychophysics literature in relation to muscle. Therefore, exteroception is a very important aspect of fascia. Perhaps more so than muscle with what we now know about the number of free nerve endings found in fascia. Imagine yourself holding a bokken or sword. If you’re a new student, it may exteroceptively feel very foreign to you in your hands. If you have practiced for a few years, some of you may feel as though you can feel the weapon as an extension of yourself. The integration may be so strong that it feels like a part of your upper extremity. If you have practiced for many years, it may even feel like an extension of your center. This leveling up of integration and perception can be described as expropioception as coined by Lee in 1978 [7]. With years of practice of internal and external martial arts with a partner or a weapon, we become more sensitized to our own bodily state and that of the other through haptic feedback. For example, when performing Aikido techniques or in weapons training, I am getting feedback from my partner or the weight of the weapon via dynamic touch. This dynamic touch utilizes the tensile states of my fascia as the tissues and the mechanoreceptors in them undertake deformation during partner practices or weapons training. This biofeedback allows me to know where my partner or weapon are in space dynamically. Recap All three of these somatosensory systems represent different layers of internal training which ought to be focused on in any movement system whether it be Yoga, Aikido, or any other therapeutic modality. Without attention to these systems, the inherent health and martial benefits will not come to fruition. Great martial art teachers like Ellis Amdur Sensei and Hoa Newens Sensei have explained very clearly that Aikido training is missing an essential element which involves internal work. This kind of training however was not lost with Koryu martial arts such as Takamuraha Shindo Yoshin Ryu. A Japanese martial art heavily influenced by Chinese martial arts, TSYR has maintained an internal training program called Nairiki [8]. “Physiologists have only recently started to study internal tactile sensitivity or interoception (awareness of internal status of one's body) as an adjunct to proprioception (unconscious perception of movement and spatial orientation arising from internal stimuli detected by nerves within the body and semicircular canals of the inner ear) and nociception (response of sensory nervous systems response to harmful or potentially harmful stimuli). This nascent field of science is confirming the validity of the centuries old practice of nairiki [8].” -Tobin Threadgill Sensei I’m blown away at Threadgill Sensei’s apt description and scientific understanding of why the Nairiki benefits his students to be better at TSYR’s curriculum. I highly recommend his book, Shindo Yoshin Ryu / History and Technique, for anyone interested in this jujitsu’s history and method. Even if no internal secrets are given in the book, it’s a gem of information and some examples of Nairiki are provided. As a member of the Kai but only a beginner without rank, I won’t go into aspects of TSYR’s Nairiki. However, my practice in TSYR and my extensive experience in Tai Chi, Aikido, and Hoa Newens Sensei’s Kihon Kunren have revealed to me the obvious connection between them. In the next portion, we will focus on three internal training methods that I practice with more familiarity and how they include interoception, proprioception, and exteroception. Interoceptive Internal Training Methods “What I gained immediately from each day of standing was a concrete way to actually go inside myself and find out how my body and chi worked from the inside out. In the internal martial arts, all movement begins from deep inside the body and works outwards toward the skin. The object is to completely fuse the inside and outside [9].” - Bruce Frantzis “A connected body offers the advantages of being flexible and truly unified when required to move. The total amount of strength in a body is available for action at any time when this state is realized. Different muscles attempt to generate power independently of other supporting structures in an unconnected body. The most misunderstood of these structures is the muscle fasciae [8].” -Tobin Threadgill Sensei Simply put above, internal training involves mindfully and physically integrating parts of the body into a whole to use our structures and muscles in concert with each other. Interoceptive training involves consciously tapping into our body’s communication system, which involves our fascia, to use only the muscle required to move. Threadgill Sensei rightly points out this results in one being in a ready state for movement. “Standing meditation is the quickest and easiest way of mastering this vital internal aspect of Tai Chi. Nearly all the great Tai Chi masters acknowledge standing meditation as a major factor in their attainment of high levels of skill [10].” - Chia The most important aspect of interoceptive internal training in martial arts is developing a standing practice. I’m emphasizing standing because if you perform an internal practice lying down or seated in a chair, you won’t benefit from strengthening your lower extremities, nor will you realign your torso properly with gravity. Thus, you’ll lack the ability to use only the muscles needed for a balanced upright static posture that will eventually translate into more efficient, powerful, and dynamic movement. Below is a insightful illustration by Anthony Chung of the progressive stages of standing and their benefits in balance, strength, alignment, and chi flow.  The following is an example of standing interoceptive training called Releasing the Energy Gates of the Body as taught in Wu Tai Chi: [11]
“Qi is, quite simply, the translator of information between the mind and the body. It is the carrier of ‘data’ from the mind through into the physical tissues via the channel system and, in return, it draws information back from the body into the mind [12].” -Damo Mitchell Without getting into the weeds on what Qi or Ki are, I’d like to offer this simple yet elegant definition above by Damo Mitchell that doesn’t rely on any metaphysics or bro science. Qi can simply be described as not just energy but also as “conscious information” received from the body’s fascial system, often called the Huang in Chinese medicine. As we start to experience this dissolving, we are developing our Qi and our ability to listen into our bodies which is a concept in Nei Gong called Qi Ting [12]. “When you reach the level of ‘listening with your chi’, your awareness will begin to merge with the various flows and pulses of your energy system. It is at this stage that your mind will begin to fully merge and absorb itself into every little nook and cranny of the body. The more open the channels and the more active the Huang, the more space your awareness can reach into. It is here, at this stage, that your mind will begin to melt with your body and flow like a fluid through your entire bodily system.” [12] – Damo Mitchell  Listening and paying attention can potentially improve our brain’s map of our body as well [13]. Above is what’s called a cortical homunculus, which was originally a model of how our anatomy is represented in our primary somatosensory cortex of the brain. Specifically, the homunculus had a front and back area in the parietal lobes of the brain. The anterior precentral gyrus controls motor function and the posterior postcentral gyrus receives somatosensory information from the body. Now we know there is greater distribution of sensory and motor function in the brain that includes but not limited to the insular cortex [14]. As you can see above, the mouth, nose, and hands have more representation in our brain than the foot or trunk. Not all models are the same and thanks to neuroplasticity our synaptic real estate can increase our body’s topographical representation if we simply pay attention and listen to our inner and outer landscapes [15]. As we say in neuro rehab, the neurons that fire together wire together. “If a person sees something and wants to acquire or move toward the object of their intentions (be it concrete or mental) that person mobilizes the “I” (pronounced yee), and after an infinitesimal gap moves into action [9].” - Bruce Frantzis My patients that suffer from a stroke or brain injury often have damage to the neurons of their motor and somatosensory cortex. As a therapeutic modality, I use mental imagery along with constraint induced movement therapy methods to wire new neuronal connections together [16] [17]. For example, I was working with a woman in her 50’s that sustained severe left hemiparesis due to a stroke. I restricted use of her intact side and had her use her intention, otherwise known in Tai Chi as “Yi” or “I”, to move her left paralytic hand by imagining that it was moving to her will to pick up an object. Miraculously, weeks after the stroke her fingers twitched and began to flex and extend. This improvement continued as we used less imagination and more intention and feeling into her arm with wrist movement, rotation of the forearm, and eventually some functional use of her upper extremity. Yi is an incredibly powerful tool in our internal training. The necessity to move her left arm created the intention needed to stimulate neuroplastic changes in the brain and restore function where there was none. Understanding the fascia as a communication network is vital to interoceptive internal training. There is a rich internal landscape available to us if we train our brain to listen daily. However, fascia’s innate ability to communicate our inner world to us has been greatly abandoned in our society because we’ve lost our ability to listen and utilize our intent properly. Who can blame us?! We live in a sick culture. With social media’s 24/7 entertainment at our fingertips, its propensity to divide us, and the collective trauma of having gone through a global pandemic, it is no surprise that we have seen a sizable uptick in mental illness. Thankfully, these practices have survived for thousands of years and can greatly help us with symptoms of interoceptive dysfunction as mentioned before. “Inner dissolving is the major meditation access point for resolving emotional difficulties, such as unworkable attitudes, dysfunction, temporary or lifelong negative patterns, or lack of perseverance when confronted with situations that are hard to handle emotionally.” [9] – Bruce Frantzis Studies have shown that internal training methods like Mindful Awareness in Body-oriented Therapy that works on interoceptive awareness have been found to be incredibly favorable in improving bodily dissociation, PTSD symptoms, sexual difficulties, drug use disorders, emotional regulation, and pain management [17]. In addition, Tai Chi and Qigong used as an intervention in studies have been found to improve stress management, increase self-efficacy, renew social skills, strengthen sensory acuity, support mood regulation, decrease depression and anxiety [18]. All these benefits are a result of interoception’s role in internal training and capacity to affect our biopsychosocial lives in a positive way. However, internal training can potentially have negative effects as well. “This is not to say that regaining interoception isn't potentially upsetting. What happens when a newly accessed feeling in your chest is experienced as rage, or fear, or anxiety?” [19] – Dr. Kolk Before starting any internal training, one should be aware of potential pitfalls. In Dr. Bessel A. van der Kolk’s book, The Body Keeps the Score, he discusses a study on the efficacy of Yoga in improving interoception and its benefits for victims of trauma [19]. However, there can be some unintended consequences. In the first Yoga study he conducted, only 50% of the subjects completed the course. According to the patients that left, they discovered that they had found the program to be too intense. In other words, their interoceptive input had been so dulled by substance abuse or blocked completely via disassociation that using a practice like Yoga caused intense panic or even flashbacks of their past traumas. As a result, they decided in the next study to go much slower. This approach led to only one out of thirty-four participants dropping out. For this reason, I would recommend finding a qualified internal teacher if you desire to improve your martial ability or just become more connected in mind, body, and spirit. Furthermore, before starting an internal practice, it may be a good idea to understand where your interoceptive acuity lies on a spectrum and perhaps seek out your mental health provider to identify any triggers that can potentially arise in internal training. If you’d like to test your own interoceptive ability, then follow these steps created by neuroscientist Hugh Critchley [6]. All you have to do is follow your own heartbeat. Critchley found that if subjects could accurately feel and count their heart rate, then they could also score higher on other interoception tests.
Proprioceptive Internal Training Methods “It is the architecture of fascial connective tissue in relation to the muscular tissue components and skeletal elements that plays a major role in the coding of the proprioceptive information that is provided.” [5]- Jaap van der Wal If the prerequisite for interoceptive internal training is stillness, then the obvious requirement for proprioceptive internal training would be movement. To be more specific, it would be movement with intention and focus solely on one’s body and structure. This would involve solo training methods like Yoga, Nairiki, Tai Chi, Qi Gong, or the Kihon Kunren. At the beginning of the Kihon Kunren, interoceptive training would fall into the category of feeling inward into the body with a Nei Gong practice involving inner dissolving. Proprioceptive internal training of the Kihon Kunren encompasses the rest of the solo exercises where one moves through the sequence of waking up the central axis, connecting the central axis to the limbs, and then utilizing aikido movements via stances and transitions through several stages.  Above we see the Kihon Kunren’s solo practice of transitioning from a static stance to dynamic movement. In transition from picture 1 to 2, I am rotating my central axis and stretching out my arm from a hamni (half body) position to a hitoemi (single body) position for several repetitions. This static practice allows one to feel how the central axis is the prime mover of their extremities. The transition from 2 to 3 involves springing forward from hitoemi and rotating from left stance to right hamni. As you can see, in picture 3 I’ve stepped forward and turned with my left arm inwardly pushing my left hand into my opposite shoulder as I would for iriminage. Performing this technique alone allows for one to feel their body in terms of proper body mechanics and balance without the disruption of a partner. This makes it purely a proprioceptive training method. I am feeling the extension originate from my central axis, opening to extend out into the extremities, and then closing to return back to the central axis again. “This was considered to be a secret technique to escape from multiple attackers. The other name for this is Yamabiko-no Michi, the path of an echo. As you extend your Ki, the Ki of your opponent will return to you like an echo. However, you do not receive your opponent's Ki, because you have instantly moved past him to his rear.” [20]- Saito Morihiro  This opening and closing movement is rarely seen or understood in aikido but was a staple movement by O-Sensei and Saito Sensei for techniques that involve irimi (entering). If one pays close attention to video of their movements, they can see this extension outward before entering and transitioning between hitoemi and hamni. Exteroceptive Internal Training Methods  Exteroceptive internal training will always involve biofeedback from an outside stimulus. In martial arts, it is typically in the form of partnered kata, push hands, sparring, or weapons work. In the example above, I am responding to my uke’s shomenuchi (overhead strike) attack. I need to respond to timing, distance, and his weight as I blend with his attack and push his neck toward my shoulder. This haptic feedback from my partner requires constant adjustments internally. To maintain balance, I use the learned interoceptive understanding of where my center of balance has shifted inside my body and the amalgamation of my statesthesia (joint position sense) and kinaesthesia (dynamic movement sense) which make up that state of my proprioception. All of this has been developed and refined in the solo practices of the Kihon Kunren and now integrated into taijitsu. I have written about how constructive resistance training can improve muscle and tendon strength and the same goes for fascia as mentioned in part two of this series. The goal of internal work is to integrate the sum of all parts of the body into a whole. However, without pressure testing or resistance training how can one truly know their body is integrated? This leads me to the practice of katai (hard) training. Without it, we have no means of understanding how to use the body in an efficient way against outside forces. This is especially true in Aikido. “If uke trains in the spirit of koryu, providing the information through his or her movement to make nage stronger, then the powerful grab that I described earlier in regards to the Sagawa and Iwama dojos should not merely be a lockdown of muscle. One is not “soft”, in the usual sense; rather, one uses a kind of relaxation that allows one to be “connected”, using one's entire body as a single integrated, flexible unit, no matter what position or posture one may be in. A skillful uke should use his/her own body to gauge if the incoming feedback of nage is on point or not- within the aiki paradigm [21].” -Ellis Amdur As mentioned by Amdur Sensei, ukemi (receiving a technique) in katai training must have a certain softness or relaxed quality [21]. Absent of this, our fascia cannot properly communicate to our mind the adjustments needed in the face of receiving a technique. This concept is mentioned ad nauseam in Taoist martial arts like Tai Chi. For example, when presented with yang energy from an opponent, one must absorb into yin. One must also find the balance between these energies within themselves as uke. That way one always has the option of reversal, kaeshiwaza. An option not available if uke throws themselves or is too rigid in their attack. “Ukemi includes a sophisticated training of the body, so that force can be channeled within it. Kaeshiwaza is not simply the ability to position oneself at the best angle to neutralize the attack of nage. One changes the angles within one’s body and further, strengthens one’s body and trains one’s nervous system in particular ways, so that one can direct incoming force and leverage with a combination of body and will. All of this requires specialized practice [21].” -Elllis Amdur Kaeshiwaza training, according to Amdur Sensei, is the highest form of ukemi [21]. It requires one to stay with the technique all the way to the end without jumping ahead. Although not well understood or practiced as much in the Aikido world today, this exteroceptive approach to internal training is incredibly important. It develops sensitivity, strength, pliability, grounding, and an internal awareness as to where one's center of balance is located all times. This is a prerequisite for being able to reverse a technique at any moment. 1st Bokken Suburi  “They all stated Saito was adamant that O-Sensei said everything one needed for developing aiki is in the suburi, which one should practice daily.” [22] -John Driscoll
This quote was in reference to discussions with those closest to Saito Sensei regarding the topic of internal training. After many years of practicing Aiki-Ken, I can see the wisdom in this statement. In weapons training we are working with a more consistent form of biofeedback. Our partner can change the direction, resistance, and intensity of the attack but with suburi training we are working with relatively constant variables. The only thing we must contend with is the weight of the weapon and its leverage away from our central axis. This forges our body’s ability to deal with the perturbations of the strike and strengthens our central axis to maintain equilibrium. The most difficult phase of the first bokken suburi is not the strike itself but ending the strike with proper structure. In Aiki-Ken, one must be able to stop the bokken parallel to the ground by anchoring our central axis into the ground and rolling in our wrists (shiburi) creating a door stop for our weapon. Most beginners will look like picture 4b due to their lack of exteroceptive acuity and structural integrity. After years of diligent practice, we should look more like picture 4a. Conclusion As mentioned before, my internal training journey began after more than 20 years of lower back pain. Studies have shown that people with chronic low back pain have a disruptive body image with decreased tactile and proprioceptive acuity in their lower back [23]. As shown in fMRI research, chronic pain and cortical reorganization in the somatosensory and insular cortex contributed to me feeling more pain and have less understanding as to where my back was in space [24] [13]. I believe that if it wasn’t for Nei Gong’s interoceptive internal training and its effects on interoceptive acuity then I would still be in constant pain. Anecdotally, there have been others in our Tai Chi class that have benefited from such practice. Given the success of recent research with modern approaches in interoceptive training, I would love to see some research on the efficacy of this ancient modality since it was so vital to my recovery. There has been much debate on the future of Aikido. Where should it go? Does the training need an overhaul? Of what use is it to society? As mentioned before, there are a myriad of problems other than back pain that arise when we are not interoceptively and proprioceptively connected to our bodies. I believe that Aikido has something special to offer the world if more focus is placed on interoceptive internal training. It has the potential to be a complete health system needed desperately for a very sick society. One that benefits all health aspects of life such as: mental health, physical fitness, spiritual well-being, and a healthy social life. Yet, Aikido needs a guiding light for this internal practice. One that is tailor made for its movements and unique stances. Many have gone outside of Aikido as I have to acquire that missing link via Tai Chi, Koryu, or Yoga. Up till now, that outsourcing was necessary but no longer. After several decades of Tai Chi and over fifty years of Aikido practice and teaching, Hoa Newens Shihan has made the principles found in most internal training methods accessible in his Kihon Kunren. At the first part of his series, standing Nei Gong is utilized to awaken interoceptive awareness back into our body before any movement is initiated. As the training progresses, each static exercise advances proprioceptively from the central axis to the extremities, and then finally away from static toward dynamic movement involving techniques found in Aikido. After the solo work, we can apply exteroceptive training in our partnered Aikido practice of weapons and taijitsu. This structured approach assures the implementation of all aspects of internal training for improved health and well-being which includes fascia’s somatosensory system. Bibliography [1] J. C. a. H. J. Robert Schleip, "Interoception: A New Correlate for Intricate Connections Between Fascial Receptors, Emotion, and Self-Awareness," in Fascia: The Tensional Network of the Human Body, London, Elsevier, 2022, pp. 169-178. [2] R. Schleip, "Fascia as an Organ of Communication," in Fascia: The Tensional Network of the Human Body, London, Elsevier, 2022, pp. 156-159. [3] N. Gogolla, "The insular cortex," Current Biology, vol. 27, no. 12, pp. pp.R580-R586., 2017. [4] R. S. Carla Stecco, "Fascia as Sensory Organ," in Fascia: In Sport and Movement, London, Handspring Publishing, 2021, pp. 169-179. [5] J. v. d. Wal, "Proprioception," in Fascia: The Tensional Network of the Human Body, London, Elsevier, 2022, pp. 160-168. [6] D. Lesondak, Fascia: What It Is and Why It Matters, London: Handspring, 2023. [7] C. C. P. a. a. C. C. a. M. T. Turvey, " Exteroception and exproprioception by dynamic touch are different functions of the inertia tensor," Perception & Psychophysics, pp. 1191-1202, 1996. [8] T. T. a. S. Ohgami, Shindo Yoshin Ryu: History and Technique, Evergreen: New Willow Press, 2019. [9] B. Frantzis, The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi: Combat and Energy Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi, and Hsing-I, Fair fax: Energy Arts Inc., 2007. [10] M. C. a. J. Li, The Inner Structure of Tai Chi, Huntington: Healing Toa Books, 1996. [11] B. Frantzis, Opening the Energy Gates of your Body: Qigong for Lifelong Health, Fairfax: Energy Arts, Inc., 2006. [12] D. Mitchell, A Comprehensive Guide to Daoist Nei Gong, London: Singning Dragon, 2018. [13] M. G. Lotze M, "Role of distorted body image in pain," Curr Rheumatol Rep, vol. 9, p. 488–496, 2007. [14] Y. L. S. A. 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Bessel van der Kolk, The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma, New York : Penguin Group, 2014. [20] M. Saito, Traditional Aikido Vol 1. Basic Techniques, Tokyo: Minato Research and Publishing Company , 1973. [21] E. Amdur, Hidden in Plain Sight, Edgeworks Books, 2000. [22] E. Amdur, 2012. [Online]. Available: https://aikidojournal.com/2012/10/19/a-consideration-of-aikido-practice-within-the-context-of-internal-training-by-ellis-amdur/. [23] G. L. Moseley, "I can’t find it! Distorted body image and tactile dysfunction in patients with chronic back pain," Pain, no. 140, pp. 239-243, 2008. [24] Z. L. C. R. Y. H. L. H. M. A. Hu L, "A. The primary somatosensory cortex and the insula contribute differently to the processing of transient and sustained nociceptive and non-nociceptive somatosensory inputs.," Human Brain Mapping, no. 36, p. 4346–4360, 2015.
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